ROMAN LEGIONARIES: Strength of Roman Empire

Each legion contained about 5,000 men and was recruited from men accustom to hard labor, usually from a farm. However, as Rome’s dominion grew, legionaries experienced long periods of inactivity, boredom and garrison duty. There were problems.

Centurion (left) and Optio

Commanders replaced inactivity with work such as road and fort construction. Some of these were necessary, some were diversionary. Such work was done under the supervision of a specific class of legionary called an Immunes. These were the engineers, surveyors and blacksmiths of the legion. During much a legionary’s day, he was assigned to them.

During the other times, the legionary was supposed to be training, practices, drills, maintaining gear, etc. under these officers:

• Centurion

• Optio (second in charge to the centurion)

• Tesserarius (watch commander)

When not fighting, on patrol, or building, or repairing, a legionary (legionarius) would be training under the supervision an Optio or, in some cases, a Centurion. In addition, legionaries were required to perform 14–16 one day marches of between 18.5–24 miles every year. After each march, the legionaries were supposed to build the standard marching camp, in three hours. Next day, demolish camp and march back to base. In order to reach their combat destination they would sometimes march up to 36 miles in one day. 

When not field training or constructing and repairing something, legionaries slept in a fort. There are records of legionnaires owning and maintaining farms, herds and flocks. Below is a floor plan of a Roman fort, dated about 2nd century, at Hadrian's Wall :

The Romans believed a soldier with time on his hands and nothing to do, was prone to get in fights, drink, gamble, etc. Idleness was believed to be a source of mutinies so young legionaries had little free time and much manual labor. If a Roman fort was close to major town, and many were, he would have access to a communal bathhouse. Exercise for the purposes of recreation and aesthetics was known and practiced in the Roman Empire. Communal baths had weight and game rooms (as well as hair, nail, and massage solons, as well as Brothels. 

The legionaries were recruited between age 17 to 20 for 16 years of service. The recruits previous abilities (trade) were often utilized. Smiths became armorers, shoemakers made shoes and repaired leather items for the legionary. Those who were carpenters made war machines like the catapult. 

The legionary standard uniform is depicted below courtesy of Imperium Romanum. 

The Legionary uniform is as follows with Latin names:

• helmet (galea)

• shield (scutum) first round, then rectangular; a small officer’s shield (parma)

• armor – scale or chain mail armor (lorica hamata), then segmented armor (lorica segmentata). Armor consisting of a caftan and riveted rings (lorica storta), armor with steel scales riveted to a leather caftan (lorica squamata), segmental hand protection (lorica manica) and very small tanks scale armor, intended for the command (lorica plumata)

• heavy spear (hasta) or javelins (pilum)

• short, double-edged sword (gladius); long, also double-edged sword (spat (h) a) used by Roman cavalry

• sandals (caligae)

• coat (sagum or sagulum), which was a rectangular piece of material or paenula (a form of Roman poncho with hood). The coat was typical Gaul clothing and was adopted by the Roman army.

• Titus Flavius Josephus wrote (100 BC) that every legionary carried along with their weapons, armor and shields: a saw, basket, ax, sickle, chain, and 3-day food ration. 

In the 3rd and 4th centuries BC, the Roman army increasingly used horses to face and repel barbarian invasions. This was due to the fact that barbarians began using cavalry more often. The gladius was replaced by a spatha, which was longer and heavier than the gladius (sword). Both were double-edged. By the beginning of the 4th century, the scutum (large rectangular shield) was replaced with a smaller round or elliptical shield that weighed less and was used as both a shield and weapon in battle. This was adopted from the barbarians. 

FIELD RATIONS: The Codex Theodosius (7.4.11) dating from 360 states that troops on the move should receive hardtack biscuits (buccellatum), bread, ordinary wine (vinum) and sour wine (acetum), salted pork and mutton. It seems that hardtack and acetum would be consumed for two days, and on the third day the decent wine and bread would be eaten. Troops were ordered to collect twenty days rations from the state warehouses before a long campaign, and carry these rations themselves.

Not all legionary were Roman citizens. Normally they received citizenship after their service time was up, except on special occasions granted by the Centurion in the name of the Emperor. Non-Roman legionary were considered to be "auxiliary". Archaeologists have found thousands of these citizenship documents that survived records in Rome and other sites, most recently in Poland. 

Roman citizens were not racist for there were legionaries who originated from Africa and who also were Roman citizens having responsible positions in the Empire. People were not judged by their skin pigmentation, but instead by where they came from. Black people were called "Ethiopians", In Ethiopia it was the Kingdom of Aksum, which was an important trading partner for the Roman Empire. Seneca the Younger wrote in De Ira XXVI:

In the next place, we ought to conder the whole state of mankind, in order to pass a just judgment on all the occurrences of life: for it is unjust to blame individuals for a vice which is common to all. The colour of an Æthiop is not remarkable among this own people, nor is any man in Germany ashamed of red hair rolled into a knot. You cannot call anything peculiar or disgraceful in a particular man if it is the general character of his nation.

The characters in the HBO series "Rome", Titus Pullo and Lucius Vorenus were actual historical figures. They were both Centurions in the 11th Legion who fought in Gaul at the end of 54 BC. Julius Caesar mentions them in his Gallic Wars (5-44) chronicle, which means they impressed him. Pullo and Varenus were constantly competing against each other, but when it came to the battlefield they protected each other. Caesar describes their heroics:

In that legion there were two very brave men, centurions, who were now approaching the first ranks, T. Pulfio, and L. Varenus. These used to have continual disputes between them which of them should be preferred, and every year used to contend for promotion with the utmost animosity. When the fight was going on most vigorously before the fortifications, Pulfio, one of them, says, “Why do you hesitate, Varenus? or what [better] opportunity of signalizing your valor do you seek? This very day shall decide our disputes.” When he had uttered these words, he proceeds beyond the fortifications, and rushes on that part of the enemy which appeared the thickest. Nor does Varenus remain within the rampart, but respecting the high opinion of all, follows close after. Then, when an inconsiderable space intervened, Pulfio throws his javelin at the enemy, and pierces one of the multitude who was running up, and while the latter was wounded and slain, the enemy cover him with their shields, and all throw their weapons at the other and afford him no opportunity of retreating. The shield of Pulfio is pierced and a javelin is fastened in his belt. This circumstance turns aside his scabbard and obstructs his right hand when attempting to draw his sword: the enemy crowd around him when [thus] embarrassed. His rival runs up to him and succors him in this emergency. Immediately the whole host turn from Pulfio to him, supposing the other to be pierced through by the javelin. Varenus rushes on briskly with his sword and carries on the combat hand to hand, and having slain one man, for a short time drove back the rest: while he urges on too eagerly, slipping into a hollow, he fell. To him, in his turn, when surrounded, Pulfio brings relief; and both having slain a great number, retreat into the fortifications amid the highest applause. Fortune so dealt with both in this rivalry and conflict, that the one competitor was a succor and a safeguard to the other, nor could it be determined which of the two appeared worthy of being preferred to the other.

 TATTOOS

Some Roman legionary had tattoos beyond the unit symbol that marked them as Roman legionaries, especially those who served at the Hadrian Wall, probably adapted from the Celts who often tattooed their bodies. If the tattoo was not the symbol of their legion unit, it is believed they had a tattoo of an eagle, the symbol of Rome. It is also thought that the tattoo of their unit was on the hand, not the left shoulder. Although historian Lindsay insists it was on the hand, we really don't know where on the body it was tattooed. We do know legionary were tattooed from Epitoma Rei militaris by Vegetius, Roman historian. Who wrote that the "recruitment to a Roman army should begin with testing the strength, then assignment to the unit and later tattooing with a unit sign." 

SOURCES:

• Gaius Julius Caesar, Gallic War, V, 44

• Ross Cowan, The Real Pullo and Vorenus, Academia

• Codex Theodosius 

• De Re Militari, Flavius Vegetius Renatus (390 AD)

• American in Ephesus, Keith Allen Lehman

• Vegetius, Rei militaris, I.8 

• HBO's ROME Update

• Politics of ROME (HBO)